Challenges to the Repatriation of Rohingya Refugees to Myanmar

Reporting by Rohingya Political Journalist Saiful Arakani.

Cox’s Bazar Bangladesh 17-November-2025.

The Rohingya, a stateless Muslim minority primarily from Rakhine State, Myanmar, have faced decades of systemic persecution, discrimination, and violent oppression and Genocide. Since the late 20th century, waves of Rohingya have fled Myanmar due to state-sanctioned violence, human rights abuses, and denial of citizenship. Despite numerous international interventions and agreements, the prospect of safe, voluntary, and dignified repatriation remains uncertain. Many Rohingya themselves express deep skepticism about returning, citing political, legal, and security obstacles.

Current Political Context in Rakhine State:

A major barrier to Rohingya repatriation is the lack of a legitimate, stable, and inclusive government in Rakhine State capable of ensuring their safety and rights. The region remains under tight military control and suffers from political instability. The absence of a designated or representative government that can implement policies guaranteeing protection, citizenship, and social integration has created an environment where Rohingya fear persecution, arbitrary arrest, and violence upon return.

The Rohingya have been systematically denied citizenship under Myanmar’s 1982 Citizenship Law, which classifies them as “foreigners.” Without recognition as citizens, they lack legal protections and rights to live, work, or own property. This legal exclusion is compounded by bureaucratic obstacles in accessing essential documents even if repatriation were attempted. Consequently, Rohingya cannot rely on any state institution in Myanmar to safeguard their civil and human rights.

Since 2012, outbreaks of intercommunal violence and military-led operations in Rakhine State have forced tens of thousands to flee. Reports from international organizations, including the United Nations and Human Rights Watch, document continued military presence, extrajudicial killings, destruction of villages, and restrictions on movement for Rohingya communities. Such conditions make any return inherently unsafe.

Humanitarian and Socioeconomic Challenges:

Even if political and security conditions were partially improved, the lack of infrastructure, access to education, healthcare, and livelihoods in Rakhine State remains a significant barrier. Many Rohingya refugees have lived in camps in Bangladesh and elsewhere for decades and have established communities. The risk of returning to impoverished and hostile conditions undermines any realistic prospects for reintegration.

Perspectives from the Rohingya Community:

Voices within the Rohingya refugee community express profound pessimism about the possibility of safe repatriation. Many argue that without a designated government in Rakhine State committed to justice, citizenship rights, and security guarantees, returning would expose them to continued oppression and potential violence. This lack of political representation, accountability, and protection sustains the perception that there is no hope for voluntary repatriation under current conditions.

International and Diplomatic Efforts:

While the United Nations and other international actors have proposed repatriation frameworks, these initiatives have largely failed due to Myanmar’s unwillingness to provide legal protections or create conducive conditions for return. Agreements between Myanmar and Bangladesh, intended to facilitate return, have not been implemented effectively, further reinforcing the skepticism among Rohingya refugees.

Rakhine State, Myanmar, has been the site of decades of conflict, human rights abuses, and inter-communal violence. The Rohingya, a stateless Muslim minority, have faced systemic persecution, including denial of citizenship, restrictions on movement, and targeted attacks. In addition to state-perpetrated violence, armed groups like the Arakan Army (AA) an ethnic Rakhine Buddhist insurgent group, have also been involved in the region, complicating security and humanitarian conditions.

The Arakan Army is an armed ethnic Rakhine nationalist organization seeking greater autonomy for the Rakhine people. Since 2018, AA has engaged in armed clashes with the Myanmar military (Tatmadaw) across northern Rakhine State. The conflict has resulted in civilian casualties, forced displacement, and destruction of property. While the AA claims to fight for Rakhine rights, their presence contributes to instability and insecurity in the region.

1. Displacement and Fear: Armed clashes between the AA and the Myanmar military have displaced both Rakhine and Rohingya communities, with Rohingya often trapped in conflict zones without protection. 2. Targeted Violence: Reports suggest that in some areas, Rohingya communities have been caught in crossfire or targeted due to ethnic or religious identity, exacerbating historical patterns of persecution. 3. Obstruction of Humanitarian Access: Ongoing conflict limits aid delivery, education, and healthcare, worsening the humanitarian crisis for stateless Rohingya populations.

While international attention has mostly focused on Myanmar’s military actions against Rohingya (2016–2017), some human rights groups note that the broader conflict in Rakhine, fuelled by both the Tatmadaw and armed groups like AA, intensifies conditions resembling systemic persecution. Genocide is legally defined as acts intended to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. Allegations against the Myanmar military have been documented; while the AA primarily targets the state, their actions indirectly worsen the vulnerability of the Rohingya population.

The presence of armed groups like the Arakan Army adds complexity to the humanitarian crisis in Rakhine State. While AA’s primary focus is Rakhine autonomy, the ongoing conflict contributes to displacement, insecurity, and ongoing suffering for Rohingya communities. The combined effect of military operations, ethnic violence, and lack of governance perpetuates a situation where Rohingya remain stateless, at risk, and with little hope for safe return.

The repatriation of Rohingya refugees to Myanmar faces significant obstacles rooted in political instability, the absence of a designated or representative government in Rakhine State, legal exclusion, security threats, and ongoing humanitarian crises. Until these structural and systemic issues are addressed, many Rohingya perceive their return as neither safe nor feasible. International actors must recognize these barriers and focus on long-term solutions, including legal recognition, protection, and durable resettlement alternatives.